The short version of nasal formulation fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-08-01. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
== Function == The architecture of a dry shipper encompasses two primary components: an internal canister and an external protective shell. The inner canister, designed to hold biological specimens, is positioned within the vapor phase of the liquid nitrogen. This configuration ensures that the specimens are maintained at temperatures below -150 °C (302 °F) for prolonged periods. A distinctive feature of dry shippers is their ability to avert direct contact between samples and liquid nitrogen, reducing risks of contamination and ensuring consistent cryogenic conditions during transit.
In ancient India, various teachings about well-being are found in the Hindu tradition, formulated in the first two millennia BCE in the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Smriti literature. They include the ideas that a person should fulfill their duty relative to their social role and stage of life, and that one should attain knowledge about how the self and the world are ultimately one. A central element of the Buddhist conception of well-being is the avoidance of suffering. The Buddha (roughly 6th century BCE) identified craving as the root cause of suffering, proposing a set of practical recommendations, such as right conduct and mindfulness, to overcome it. In ancient China, Confucius (6th to 5th century BCE) emphasized the role of social virtues in leading a good life, with a particular focus on benevolence or humaneness. In the Taoist tradition, Laozi (6th century BCE) saw living in harmony with the natural order of the universe through effortless, spontaneous action as the ideal form of life. During the medieval period in the West, Christian thinkers associated well-being with spiritual salvation. Augustine (354–430 CE) argued that humans are not fully in control of their well-being and instead depend on divine grace. He maintained that true happiness is achievable only in the afterlife. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) similarly emphasized the role of the divine, proposing that a beatific vision of God is the highest form of well-being.
=== Discovery === In 1869, while studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope, Paul Langerhans, a medical student in Berlin, identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas. The function of the "little heaps of cells", later known as the islets of Langerhans, initially remained unknown, but Édouard Laguesse later suggested they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion. Paul Langerhans' son, Archibald, also helped to understand this regulatory role. In 1889, the physician Oskar Minkowski, in collaboration with Joseph von Mering, removed the pancreas from a healthy dog to test its assumed role in digestion. On testing the urine, they found sugar, establishing for the first time a relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In 1901, another major step was taken by the American physician and scientist Eugene Lindsay Opie, when he isolated the role of the pancreas to the islets of Langerhans: "Diabetes mellitus when the result of a lesion of the pancreas is caused by destruction of the islets of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed". Over the next two decades researchers made several attempts to isolate the islets' secretions. In 1906, George Ludwig Zuelzer achieved partial success in treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but he was unable to continue his work. Between 1911 and 1912, E.L.
Diamorphine is produced from acetylation of morphine derived from natural opium sources, generally using acetic anhydride. The major metabolites of diamorphine, 6-MAM, morphine, morphine-3-glucuronide, and morphine-6-glucuronide, may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Most commercial opiate screening tests cross-react appreciably with these metabolites, as well as with other biotransformation products likely to be present following usage of street-grade diamorphine such as 6-Monoacetylcodeine and codeine. However, chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and measure each of these substances. When interpreting the results of a test, it is important to consider the diamorphine usage history of the individual, since a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate an opiate-naive individual, and the chronic user often has high baseline values of these metabolites in his system. Furthermore, some testing procedures employ a hydrolysis step before quantitation that converts many of the metabolic products to morphine, yielding a result that may be 2 times larger than with a method that examines each product individually.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Awards == Gavi was awarded the 2019 Lasker-Bloomberg Public Service Award for "providing sustained access to childhood vaccines around the globe, thus saving millions of lives, and for highlighting the power of immunization to prevent disease". Gavi was nominated for the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize by Norwegian MP Carl-Erik Grimstad. Gavi was awarded the Sunhak Peace Prize in 2022 for promoting vaccine equity at the forefront of COVID-19 by leading COVAX, and for improving global health by increasing access to vaccines for children in vulnerable countries.
When Cooper boarded Faith 7 at 6:36 AM on the morning of May 14, he found a little gift that had been left for him. Alan Shepard, knowing that Cooper would have a new version of the urine containment device that Shepard did not have on his Mercury-Redstone 3 flight (forcing him to relieve himself during a long countdown hold), had left behind a suction-cup pump as a joke. Instructions on the handle said, "Remove Before Launch". The gift did not make the trip. Neither did Cooper that day. Various problems with radar in Bermuda and the diesel engine that rolled back the gantry caused the launch to be cancelled until May 15.
nicotinamide + peptide N-(ADP-D-ribosyl)diphthamide Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are NAD+ and peptide diphthamide, whereas its two products are nicotinamide and peptide N-(ADP-D-ribosyl)diphthamide. This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, to be specific, the pentosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is NAD+:peptide-diphthamide N-(ADP-D-ribosyl)transferase. Other names in common use include ADP-ribosyltransferase, mono(ADPribosyl)transferase, and NAD-diphthamide ADP-ribosyltransferase.
Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.
In an early media report on MDMA published in 1982, a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) spokesman stated the agency would ban the drug if enough evidence for abuse could be found. By mid-1984, MDMA use was becoming more noticed. Bill Mandel reported on "Adam" in a 10 June San Francisco Chronicle article, but misidentified the drug as methyloxymethylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA). In the next month, the World Health Organization identified MDMA as the only substance out of twenty phenethylamines to be seized a significant number of times. After a year of planning and data collection, MDMA was proposed for scheduling by the DEA on 27 July 1984, with a request for comments and objections. The DEA was surprised when a number of psychiatrists, psychotherapists, and researchers objected to the proposed scheduling and requested a hearing. In a Newsweek article published the next year, a DEA pharmacologist stated that the agency had been unaware of its use among psychiatrists. An initial hearing was held on 1 February 1985 at the DEA offices in Washington, D.C., with administrative law judge Francis L. Young presiding. It was decided there to hold three more hearings that year: Los Angeles on 10 June, Kansas City, Missouri on 10–11 July, and Washington, D.C., on 8–11 October. Sensational media attention was given to the proposed criminalization and the reaction of MDMA proponents, effectively advertising the drug.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Secretion == A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric juice daily. Gastric juice is the combination of gastric gland secretions including the main component of hydrochloric acid (gastric acid), gastric lipase and pepsinogen. Once in the stomach pepsinogen is changed by gastric acid to the digestive enzyme pepsin adding this enzyme to the gastric juice. In humans, the pH of gastric acid is between one and three, much lower than most other animals, but is very similar to that of carrion eating carnivores, needing extra protection from ingesting pathogens. Gastric acid secretion is produced in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. This creates a negative potential of between −40 and −70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted along with other gland secretions into the gastric pit for release into the stomach lumen. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H+/K+ ATPase antiporter pumps. At the same time, sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K+ (potassium) and Na+ (sodium) ions return to the cytoplasm.
==== Tectonic processes and climate change ==== Isotopes with extremely long half-lives and their decay products can be used to study multi-million year processes, such as tectonics and extreme climate change. For example, in rubidium–strontium dating, the isotopic ratio of strontium (87Sr/86Sr) can be analyzed within ice cores to examine changes over the earth's lifetime. Differences in this ratio within the ice core would indicate significant alterations in the earth's geochemistry.
=== Bispecific antibodies and radiolabelled haptens === The beginning of the pretargeting concept was based on bispecific antibodies which were able to bind a specific target antigen and a radiolabelled hapten. Possible was this approach because of the development of monoclonal Antibodies which could be connected to radiometal chelates. Also connecting two haptens via a two amino acid linker resulted in an enhancement effect of the affinity, which improved the uptake and retention of the radiolabelled compound without affecting the rapid clearance. Limiting factor of this approach were the slow binding constant which was rarely higher than 10−10 M, amongst other reasons.
Having united these two complex fragments, Still was able to complete the synthesis of monensin in three additional steps. First, hydrogenolysis of the benzyl group afforded the free primary alcohol under standard conditions. Next, cleavage of the triethylsilyl (TES) protecting groups was achieved in the presence of para-toluenesulfonic acid; the resulting free secondary alcohols then engaged the ketone in a spontaneous cyclization reaction to form the thermodynamic spiroketal linkage. Finally, hydrolysis of the methyl ester under basic conditions furnished the sodium salt of monensin, completing the synthesis of this challenging natural product.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.